DEVELOPMENT OF CNS

Central nervous system (CNS).


Brain and spinal cord.

Both contain fluid-filled spaces which contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

The central canal of the spinal cord is continuous with the ventricles of the brain.

White matter is composed of bundles of myelinated axons
Gray matter consists of unmyelinated axons, nuclei, and dendrites.

Peripheral nervous system.

Everything outside the CNS.

Spinal and cranial nerves

The cerebrum is derived from the embryonic telencephalon

The cerebrum is divided into left and right cerebrum hemispheres.

The corpus callosum is the major connection between the two hemispheres.

The left hemisphere is primarily responsible for the right side of the body.

The right hemisphere is primarily responsible for the left side of the body.

Cerebral cortex: outer covering of gray matter.

Neocortex: region unique to mammals.

The more convoluted the surface of the neocortex the more surface area the more neurons.

Basal nuclei: internal clusters of nuclei
Lateralization of Brain Function.


The left hemisphere.

Specializes in language, math, logic operations, and the processing of serial sequences of information, and visual and auditory details.

Specializes in detailed activities required for motor control.

The right hemisphere.

Specializes in pattern recognition, spatial relationships, nonverbal ideation, emotional processing, and the parallel processing of information.



The epithalamus, choroid plexus and the pineal gland thalamus, and hypothalamus are derived from the embryonic diencephalon.

Thalamus.

Relays all sensory information to the cerebrum.

Contains one nucleus for each type of sensory information.

Relays motor information from the cerebrum.

Receives input from the cerebrum.

Receives input from brain centers involved in the regulation of emotion and arousal. Hypothalamus.

Regulates autonomic activity.

Contains nuclei involved in thermoregulation, hunger, thirst, sexual and mating behavior, etc.

Regulates the pituitary gland.

• The Brainstem.


– The “lower brain.”

– Consists of the medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain.

– Derived from the embryonic hindbrain and midbrain.

– Functions in homeostasis, coordination of movement, conduction of impulses to higher brain centers.

Midbrain. Develops from the mesencephalon

Contains nuclei involved in the integration of sensory information. visual reflexes & auditory reflexes. Relays information to and from higher brain centers



Cerebellum.Develops from part of the metencephalon.

Relays sensory information about joints, muscles, sight, and sound to the cerebrum.

Coordinates motor commands issued by the cerebrum



Pons. Develops from part of the metencephalon

Contains nuclei involved in the regulation of visceral activities such as breathing.

Relays information to and from higher brain centers

Medulla oblongata. Develops from the myelencephalon

Contains nuclei that control visceral (autonomic homeostatic) functions.

Relays information to and from higher brain centers

DEVELOPMENT OF URINARY SYSTEM

INDIANA UNIVERSITY


SCHOOL OF MEDICINE

The urogenital system develops from:


• the intermediate mesoderm (fig. 12-1B),

• the mesodermal epithelium (mesothelium) of the peritoneal cavity,

• and the endoderm of the urogenital sinus (fig. 12-20A).

The intermediate mesoderm used to lie lateral to the somites, then moved away from the somites during the lateral fold. It forms the urogenital ridge (fig. 12-1F) which is comprised of:

• a nephrogenic cord or ridge (fig. 12-2A)

• and a gonadal or genital ridge (fig. 12-29C).

3 successive sets of kidneys develop:

• The nonfunctional, rudimentary pronephroi develop early in week 4. But they degenerate, leaving behind the pronephric ducts which run to the cloaca (fig. 12-2). These ducts will remain for other kidneys.

• The mesonephroi develop later during week 4, serving as temporary excretory organs.

• The functional metanephroi or permanent kidneys develop early in week 5. They are functional by week 11-13 and excrete urine into the amniotic fluid. This excretion continues during fetal life and the fetus swallows this urine mixed in the amniotic fluid. It is then absorbed in the stomach and duodenum to the blood for transport to the placenta and disposal.

o If renal agenesis or urethral obstruction occurs, oligohydramnios results.

o If esophageal or duodenal atresia occurs, then polyhydramnios results.

The metanephros develops mesodermally from the metanephric diverticulum or ureteric bud which is a dorsal outgrowth from the mesonephric duct near the cloaca (fig. 12-6).

• Its stalk gives rise to the ureter (fig. 12-6C),


• its cranial end to the renal pelvis,

• its first 4 generations of tubules to the major calyces,

• its second 4 generations to the minor calyces (fig. 12-6D)

• and the remaining generations of tubules to the collecting tubules (fig. 12-6E).

The metanephric diverticulum or ureteric bud penetrates the metanephric mesoderm in the caudal part of the nephrogenic cord and stimulates the formation of the metanephric mass or cap (fig. 12-9).

The metanephric mesoderm gives rise to the nephrons (glomerulus, Bowman's capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle and distal convoluted tubule; fig. 12-7). The cortex of the kidney in the newborn contains mostly undifferentiated mesenchyme; the nephrons continue to develop several months after birth.

Ascension of the kidneys (fig. 12-10): The kidneys are first located in the pelvis ventral to the sacrum but gradually ascend to the abdomen. They reach the adult position by week 9 having touched the suprarenal glands (fig. 12-10). This is due to the disproportionate growth between the lumbar and sacral regions: the sacral region grows faster than the lumbar region.

The kidneys rotate 90 degrees from anterior to medial.

During their ascension, the blood supply changes continuously so that an adult may have 2 to 4 renal arteries (fig. 12-11).

The suprarenal glands ( fig. 12-27):

• The cortex forms from the mesoderm,

• the medulla from neural crest cells (receiving preganglionic sympathetic fibers from the celiac plexus).

The urinary bladder develops from the urogenital sinus and the surrounding splanchnic mesenchyme (fig. 12-20). The urogenital sinus is comprised of 3 regions:

• The cranial or vesical region which will form the bladder and which is attached to the allantois. After birth, the allantois degenerates and becomes the urachus forming the median umbilical ligament. The transitional epithelium of the bladder develops from endoderm of the urogenital sinus.


• The middle or pelvic region.

• and the caudal or phallic region.

The female urethra and almost all of the male urethra have the same origin.

The glans penis in the male develops from the ectodermal glandular plate (figs. 12-24, 12-25)

Developmental abnormalities of the kidney and excretory passages are common:

• Incomplete division of the metanephric diverticulum or ureteric bud results in double ureter (fig. 12-12B-D) and supernumerary kidney (fig. 12-12F).

• Failure of the kidney to "ascend" from its embryonic position in the pelvis results in an ectopic kidney that is abnormally rotated (fig. 12-12B).

• Various congenital cystic conditions of the kidneys may result from failure of nephrons derived from the metanephric mesoderm to connect with collecting tubules derived from the metanephric diverticulum.

NOTES ON Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis


By: Sue Renfrow, RN, BSN



Osteoarthritis

* A form of Degenerative Joint Disease (DJD) * A common disabling joint disorder (problems with hips, knees, ankles) *Osteoarthritis is the most prevalent activity limitation among the elderly leading to disability *Affects 16- 20 million people in U.S.



Causes

*Idiopathic- Primary *No prior event or disease * Aging *Secondary *Resulting from previous joint or inflammatory disease *Congenital diseases ( Legg-Cave’-Perthes) *Gout *Obesity the more you weigh the harder it is on your joints



Clinical Manifestations

*Pain *Stiffness/ swelling *Functional Impairment/ asymetric *Heberden’s Nodes



Assessment/Diagnostic

*Physical assessment of musculoskeletal system *Location and pattern of pain *X-Rays- Show loss of joint cartilage, narrowing of joint space, osteophytes (bone Spurs) *Labs-ESR, RH-rule out RA (RH 40 or less)



Medical Management

*Decrease weight *Injury prevention *Ergonomic modifications



Conservative:

-heat/cold -avoid overuse -supports for joints -isometric, postural and aerobic exercise -Physical/Occupational therapy



Pharmacological

*Tylenol, Acetaminophen (drug of choice) worry about liver damage





*Salicylates, Aspirin - the “grandfather” *NSAIDS: Ibuprofen, Advil, Motrin & Nuprin (eventually will wind up on NSAIDs) *Cox-2 (Celebrex) worry about GI bleed *Opiates *Corticosteroids *Glucosamine/Chondroiton *Hyaluronic acid (Synivisc) *Topical- Capsain, methylsalicylate



Surgical Management

*Osteotomy-moderate to severe loss of function, may have this (realign joint) *Arthroplasty-surgical repair of the joint p. 1628



Treatment

*GOALS of treatment include: GOALS *decreasing joint pain and stiffness *improving joint mobility and stability *increasing ability to perform ADL’s *optimizing functional ability



Nursing Management:

*Chronic pain related to joint degeneration *Impaired physical mobility related to restricted joint mobility *Body image disturbance related to visible body changes *Self-care deficit related to immobility *Knowledge deficit *Ineffective individual/family coping or compromise



Preventative Measures:

*Joint Protection Joint *Correct body mechanics *Avoid grasping actions that strain finger joints *Spread weight of an object over several joints *Maintain good posture *Use strongest muscles and favor large joints

NOTES ON UPPER LIMB

NOTES ON UPPER LIMB

Right click on below tag and click on save target as....


NOTES ON UPPER LIMB

LIVING WITH DISEASE

Great peoples and their disease.

.
Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein did not speak until the age of three. Even as an adult Einstein found that searching for words was laborious. He found schoolwork, especially math, difficult and was unable to express himself in writing. He was thought to be simple minded (retarded), until it was realized that he was able to achieve by visualizing rather than by the use of language. He work on relativity, which revolutionized modern physics, was created in his spare time.

Stephen Hawking
Stephen Hawking is a physicist/mathematician who has Lou Gehrigs Disease. He uses a wheelchair for mobility and a computer to speak.

Helen Keller
Helen Keller was suddenly shut off from the world at the age of 19 months by the loss of sight and hearing. Against overwhelming odds, she waged a slow and difficult but successful battle to re-enter the world. A near-savage deaf and blind mute child grew into a woman who wrote, spoke, and labored incessantly for the betterment of others and almost single-handedly destroyed age-old myths about people with disabilities.

John Milton
English Author/poet (1608-1674): He became blind at the age of 43. He went on to create his most famous epic, Paradise Lost.

Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo da Vinci, an Italian painter, sculptor, writer, scientists, engineer, musician and architect. Renaissance genius. Strephosymbolis (unable to process symbols accurately).

George Washington
George Washington was unable to spell throughout his life and his grammar usage was very poor. His brother suggested that perhaps surveying in the backwoods might be an appropriate career for young George.

NOTES ON SKULL TUTORIAL

NOTES ON SKULL TUTORIAL

Right click on the below tag and click on save target as....

Notes on skull tutorial

NOTES ON JAUNDICE

Notes on jaundice 

Right click on the below tag and click on save target as....

Notes on jaundice  

NOTICE

VERY SOON WE ARE GOING TO HAVE MAGAZINE/ARTICLE CORNER IN THIS BLOG IN WHICH WE ARE GOING TO POST  CREATIVE WRITINGS ON ANY TOPICS RELATED AND NOT RELATED TO MEDICAL FIELDS...
THE ARTICLES WILL BE COLLECTED FROM MORE THAN 100 MEDICAL COLLEGES ALL OVER THE WORLD....
TO SUBMIT YOUR ARTICLE MAIL TO :
biveksingh@hotmail.com

PLEASE DO NOT COPY THE ARTICLES FROM OTHER SITE ,,,

Musculoskeletal Pathology:Most know area

Musculoskeletal Pathology:Most know area




Hereditary Disorders



Osteogenesis imperfecta

· Many types

· Mutations of collagen type 1

· Multiple fractures

· Dentinogenesis imperfecta



Achondroplasia

· 20% autosomal dominant; 80% random mutations

· Most common form of inherited dwarfism

· Epiphyseal plates close prematurely

· Cor pulmonale



Osteopetrosis

· Autosomal dominant or recessive

· Osteoclast hypofunction causes very dense bone

· AR: severe, with anemia, nerve entrapment, hydrocephalus, infections, fractures

· AD: milder



Non-Neoplastic Disorders



Fracture

· Inflammatory phase (first week; clot and callus formation)

· Reparative phase (months; callus bridge)

· Remodeling phase (weeks-years; remodeling of callus)



Osteonecrosis

· Ischemic death of bone without infection

· Physical event: trauma, embolism, radiation

· Systemic disease: sickle cell, lupus, gout

· Toxic effect: corticosteroids, alcoholism



Myositis Ossificans

· Reactive bone formation within muscle

· Caused by trauma

· Looks like a neoplasm

· Lower limbs



Osteomyelitis

· Bone inflammation caused by infection

· Staph, Strep, E. coli, N. gonorrhea, H. influenzae, Salmonella

· Results from direct penetration or hematogenous spread

· Sequestrum (necrotic bone fragment) eventually covered by involucrum (new periosteal bone)



Osteoporosis

· Decreased bone mass per unit volume

· Normal ratio of mineral to matrix

· Primary occurs in elderly women (decreased estrogen, less exercise)

· Secondary occurs with corticosteroid use, alcoholism



Paget Disease

· Disorder of bone remodeling

· Three phases (hot, mixed, cold)

· Bones of skull: cotton wool appearance, hypercementosis of jaws

· Tests: alkaline phosphatase, urine hydroxyproline



Fibrous Dysplasia

· Monostotic

· Ground glass appearance on xray

· McCune Albright syndrome

· Jaffe syndrome



Osteoarthritis

· Most common joint disease

· Primary (cartilage defect), secondary (to trauma, crystal deposits, infection)

· Weight-bearing joints (knees, hips, spine) and hands

· Eburnated (very dense, ivory-like) bone, Haberden nodes



Rheumatoid Arthritis

· Chronic, systemic, autoimmune, inflammatory disease

· Symmetrical small-joint involvement

· Starts as synovial disease (hyperplastic synovium, pannus)

· Rice bodies, rheumatoid nodules



Gout

· Increased serum urate leads to urate crystals in joints, kidneys

· Primary or secondary (malignancy, alcoholism)

· Acute gout (podagra), tophaceous gout (tophi in ear, Achilles tendon)

· Histology: Granulomas with needle-shaped crystals





Muscle Disorders



Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

· X-linked

· Deletion of dystrophin gene

· Degeneration of muscles

· Wheelchair-bound by age 10-15; death from respiratory insufficiency or arrhythmia



Myotonic Dystrophy

· Autosomal dominant

· Atrophy of type I fibers, hypertrophy of type II fibers

· Muscle weakness and sustained muscular contractions

· Gets worse from one generation to next

Asperger's Symptoms :A SYNDROME IN "MY NAME IS KHAN"

Asperger's Symptoms in Children 

Does your toddler have aspergers?

Asperger's Symptoms can be presented in a range of combinations. Both children and adults can exhibit any combination of aspergers behaviours in varying degrees of severity. This means that two children, both with the same diagnosis, can act very differently from one another and have varying skills.

The best way to understand Asperger syndrome is to think of it as a form of autism in smart kids.

10 Most Essential Asperger's Symptoms in Children 

1. Not pick up on social cues and may lack inborn social skills, such as being able to read others' body language, start or maintain a conversation, and take turns talking.

2. Dislike any changes.

3. Lack empathy.

4. Be unable to recognize subtle differences in speech tone, pitch, and accent that alter the meaning of others' speech. Thus, your child may not understand a joke or may take a sarcastic comment literally. Likewise, his or her speech may be flat and difficult to understand because it lacks tone, pitch, and accent.

5. Have a formal style of speaking that is advanced for his or her age. For example, the child may use the word "beckon" instead of "call" or the word "return" instead of "come back."

6. Avoid eye contact or stare at others.

7. Have unusual facial expressions or postures.

8. Be preoccupied with only one or few interests, which he or she may be very knowledgeable about. Many children with Asperger's syndrome are overly interested in parts of a whole or in unusual activities, such as designing houses, drawing highly detailed scenes, or studying astronomy.

9. Talk a lot, usually about a favorite subject. One-sided conversations are common. Internal thoughts are often verbalized.

10. Have delayed motor development. Your child may be late in learning to use a fork or spoon, ride a bike, or catch a ball. He or she may have an awkward walk. Handwriting is often poor.

Source: WeBMD.com

 

How Asperger Syndrome Affects Daily Life 

The syndrome manifests in many ways that can cause difficulties on a daily basis. Here are some examples of what to look for:

- Delayed motor milestones
- Difficulty in conversing
- Extreme shyness
- Mixing with inappropriate company
- Unusual and obsessional interests
- Quoting lists of facts
- Confusion
- Difficulty with multitasking
- Not understanding jokes or social interaction
- Being naive and trusting
- Delighting in fine details such as knobs on a stereo
- Lack of dress sense

Is There A Cure? NO! 

There is currently no known 'cure' for Asperger Syndrome. This does not mean, however, that nothing can be done to help your asperger child.

One of the worst problems is that you can never really understand what is going on inside your child's head.

This makes it so difficult for you to understand their behaviour.

This can leave you feeling emotionally beat up and completely useless as a parent.

You have to cope with crisis on a daily, hourly or even minute by minute basis.

You experience problems when you are at home,...

Is There A Help? YES! 

Although behaviors may change through the years, the problem will not go away. But there are strategies that can improve functioning and help families cope. Early diagnosis, behavior training programs, and careful educational management to help the children reach their maximum potential are well worth the effort.

There are some simple, easy-to-use practical tips and techniques that can save you ALL that stress, worry, physical pain and embarrassment...

The Parenting Aspergers Resource Guide is an excellent resource that I would recommend to any parent who has a child with Aspergers Syndrome.

It is full of really practical and easy-to-use information to help parents with their Aspergers child and also the rest of the family.

Learn effective methods which can have a really positive effect on Asperger Symptoms and Asperger Syndrome Behavior:

Eating broccoli and cabbage can assist in lowering blood pressure

London, July 11: Eating broccoli and cabbage can assist in lowering blood pressure, suggests a latest study.

The probable reason behind this is the presence of glutamic acid in high volume in broccoli and cabbage.
For conducting the latest study, researchers scrutinized the quantity of five amino acids in the diets of 4,680 volunteers, ages between 40 to 59 years, from the U.S., UK, China and Japan.
It was discovered that with an increase in glutamic acid content in their food, their blood pressure dropped down.
Study author Dr Ian Brown, an epidemiologist at Imperial College, London, was quoted as saying, “Glutamic acid may partly explain the link between vegetable protein and lower blood pressure.”
He added, “However there is no ‘magic bullet’ for preventing high blood pressure, and vegetable protein and glutamic acid are individual elements of a broader healthy eating pattern.”
Glutamic acid and its sources
Glutamic acid is one of the most widely found amino acids and forms nearly one-fourth of vegetable protein and one-fifth of the animal protein.
It is found in all types of meats, dairy products, poultry, fish and the seaweed kombu. Rice, soy products, breads, cereals and similar whole grain foods are other excellent sources of glutamic acid.
Researchers recommend that people should not pop up glutamic acid pills, instead they should eat foods containing this acid.
DASH recommended for blood pressure
Experts say that the ‘Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH)’ diet, which reduces blood pressure and is developed by the U.S. National Institutes of Health, should be followed.
The DASH diet is rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean poultry, nuts and beans.
The new study has been published in Circulation: Journal of the American Heart Association.

THE SPITTING COBRA

 THE SPITTING COBRA

The species of snake called the spitting cobra is very unusual as it not only has a poisonous bite but it also spits venom into the eyes of its prey and aggressors. Contact of this venom with your eyes is very painful and can even blind you temporarily, therefore, if you get cobra venom in your eyes, irrigate them with water at once in order to prevent permanent tissue damage.

The King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) is also remarkable in this large family of snakes (elapidae) because it feeds almost entirely on other snakes with mice and small birds also falling prey to its poison.

The King Cobra is also a record-holder because of its size – it can reach almost twenty feet (585 cms) in length, which makes it the largest poisonous snake in the world. The most recent discovery of a new species of cobra was made in 2003 as part of an illegal shipment of exotic pets at London Zoo.

DNA studies revealed that this new species of snake is similar to the red spitting cobra but has different genes. It seems to originate from an area between Sudan and Egypt and it has been called the ‘Nubian Spitting Cobra’.

Though highly dangerous when it is threatened cobras will not attack if you leave them alone, although the spit is very accurate for about two meters. Compared to the strike of a rattlesnake, the cobra is fairly slow in its attack and furthermore, many bites prove to be blank, that is without venom.

Statistics of a study conducted on Malaysian cobra snake victims indicate that only 55% of the bites involved poison release and the same statistics indicate a mortality rate of only 10% for people bitten, since the poisons injected into the blood of the prey destroy the nerves (neurotoxins), which induces respiratory failure approximately half an hour after being bitten, so you have 30 minutes to seek help.

The colouration is variable from light green-grey to black, while juveniles are yellow and black banded. This snake can find a habitat all over south-eastern Asia.

Use Google as a calculator.

Use Google as a calculator.


Google has a built-in calculator — try entering a calculation like 110 * (654/8 + 3). Yes, your computer also has a calculator, but if you spend most of your day inside a browser, typing your calculation into the browser’s search box is quicker than firing up your calculator app.

Liver, Pancreas, and Gallbladder Anatomy-Histology Correlate

Notes on Liver, Pancreas, and Gallbladder Anatomy-Histology Correlate

Right click on the below tag and click on save target as....

Notes on Liver,Pancreas , and Gallbladder Anatomy-Histology Correlate

NOTES ON MUSCLE CONTRACTION

NOTES ON MUSCLE CONTRACTION

Right click on the below tag and click on save target as...



Notes on muscle contraction